Unit 1F - In search of the American Dream: the USA, c1917-96 (8HI0F)
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Summary A* Edexcel A -Level History Notes Paper 1F American Dream (Cambridge Student)
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Unit 1F - In search of the American Dream: the USA, c1917-96 (8HI0F)
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Unit 1F - In search of the American Dream: the USA, c1917-96 (8HI0F)
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History America: Breadth (America): Enquiry 1 (Changing Political Environment): Summary:
Post-WW1 Republicanism:
Who were the presidents?
Woodrow Wilson was the Democrat president from 1913-21. He was one of the first Democrat
presidents since the civil war and proved to be very unpopular. His interventionism, in congress and
foreign affairs was highly criticised, like his entry into WW1 in 1917 despite originally campaigning
against it and his entrance into the League of Nations without consulting congress. Wilson really
influenced the shift to Republicanism. In 1921, Warren Harding became president, before his sudden
death in 1923, he promised the US a return to ‘normalcy’ and isolationism. However, his reputation
was damaged by corruption in his administration. Arguably there could have been a swing to the
Democrats after this, but the Democrats couldn’t find a good candidate. Vice President Calvin
Coolidge took the presidency after Harding’s death in 1923 and won re-election in 1924, staying
president till 1929. He saved the Republican image by bringing more dignity and morality to the
laissez faire ideas of the Republicans. He let congress do his own thing and was very popular in
helping boost the economy into a period of boom. Herbert Hoover then won the presidency in 1928,
staying president from 1929-33. His new ideas of ‘rugged individualism’ were initially very popular
with the American people, as he claimed the Republicans had brought the US economy out of
depression and had ended unemployment. However, it became clear that this was not true with the
Great Depression and Hoover’s reaction lost the Republicans the presidency to FDR in the 1932
election.
Woodrow Wilson: 1913-21 – involvement with congress – joined WW1 in 1917 despite campaigning
against – joined League of Nations without consulting congress
Warren Harding: 1921-23 - ‘normalcy promised’ - reputation damaged by corruption in
administration
Calvin Coolidge: 1923-29 – dignity and morality combined with laissez faire – let congress do its own
thing
Herbert Hoover: 1929-33 - ‘rugged individualism’ - claimed Republicans had fixed the economy and
solved unemployment – failure in Great Depression
Appeal of Republicanism:
There was a changing political mood after WW1 and the failures of Wilson. Wilson’s involvement in
WW1 led to a small depression after WW1 which resulted in unemployment rising from 950,000 in
1919 to over 5 million in 1921. Also, in the aftermath of WW1, there was a lot of social discontent as
wages did not rise. The Communist Party of America was founded and in 1919 there were 3600
strikes with 1 in 4 striking. This led to harsh anti-communist feeling with ‘Red Hunting’ and the KKK
persecuting any action that was ‘un-American’, a feeling that slowly faded but never fully went
away. As a result, the laissez faire policy of the Republicans was seen as beneficial. Their belief was
that the only role of government was to keep their own spending under control – calling for ‘less
government in business and more business in government’. There was a hope that Republicans
would create a return to normalcy.
Unemployment Post-WW1: 1919 950,000 to 1921 over 5 million
Strike Post-WW1: 1919 3600 strikes – 1 in 4 workers on strike
,First Red Scare: Communist Party of America formed - ‘Red Hunting’ began – KKK action against
anything ‘un-American’
Republican Laissez Faire: Republican’s argued for ‘less government in business and more business in
government’ - government’s only job to keep spending under control
Key Republican Ideas:
There were three main ideas, along with laissez faire, that characterised the Republican party in the
1920s. The first was a return to ‘normalcy’ which was used by Warren Harding, claiming that he
would stop social discontent and unemployment by cutting taxes, balancing government books and
introducing things like tariffs to protect the US economy. It was a shift in focus back to the USA and
back to a laissez faire government. Alongside this came the idea of ‘isolationism’ this was the idea
that there was a focus on America not on the rest of the world. This resulted in things like campaigns
to ‘buy American’, tariffs like the Fordney McCumber tariff, restricting immigration with the 1921
Emergency Quota Act, and the Neutrality Acts. This helped contribute to the boom economy.
Herbert Hoover then introduced the idea of individualism, which combined isolationism and laissez
faire ideas, first introducing it in is 1922 pamphlet ‘American Individualism’ and growing it into the
idea of ‘rugged individualism’ in his election. This consisted of three areas, no reliance on
government aid, isolationism, and restricting immigration. This was really popular until the Great
Depression made the problems of the government’s laissez faire ideas very clear.
Normalcy: Harding used ‘normalcy’ - remove social discontent and unemployment by shifting focus
back to America – through cutting taxes, balancing government books and tariffs
Individualism: introduced in Hoover’s 1922 pamphlet ‘American Individualism’ - 1928 election
‘rugged individualism’ - no reliance on gov, isolationism, restrict immigration
Decline of Republicanism:
The Great Depression:
The Great Depression hit after the 1929 Wall Street Crash, causing unemployment, homelessness
and banks and businesses failing. Hoover assumed it would just get better on its own and so did
some things like set up the Federal Farm Board to help farmers who were struggling to export good
abroad due to tariffs but mainly just left it. He realised this laissez faire policy was not working and
so started a paternalistic approach of getting private charities to help, setting up the 1930
President’s Emergency Committee for Employment to coordinate this. However, it slowly became
clear that federal intervention was needed but congress rejected many measures because it was a
major shift in policy. As a result of what he could get passed, government deficit was at $3000
million in the final year of his presidency due to things like the 1932 Federal Home Loan Bank Act.
Hoovervilles in cities showed the poverty he’d created as this was all too little too late.
Initial Reaction to GD: laissez faire policy – some action like Federal Farm Board to help exports
Paternalistic Reaction to GD: paternalism developed – persuade private charities to help –
coordinated under 1930 President’s Emergency Committee for Unemployment
Some Federal Aid in GD: eventually federal aid like 1932 National Home Loan Bank Act – deficit of
$3000 million in final year of Hoover’s presidency – congress rejected most
,The Bonus Army:
The government had promised veterans a bonus in 1924, giving $50 and promising the rest in 1945.
Veterans wanted it early as many were left unemployed and homeless, but the government refused.
So, they marched on Washington in June 1932 with 150,000-200,000. They were met with police
violence, with tear gas, machine guns and even tanks and as a result Hoover’s popularity declined as
it appeared he was losing control.
Veterans Bonus: veterans promised bonus in 1924 – given $50 and rest in 1945 – wanted it early but
government refused
Bonus Army: marched on Washington in June 1932 demanding early bonus – met with tear gas,
machine guns and tanks – Hoover losing control
Changing Mood to Democrats:
By 1932 it was clear people were realising Republican laissez faire was not actually working –
Hoover's ‘chicken in every pot’ view of the Republicans as the poor man’s party was false. As a
result, the Democrats won the HoR in the 1930 election and were gaining seats in the senate. FDR
offered an exciting ‘New Deal’ in the 1932 election, with his campaign song ‘Happy Days are Here
Again’ and his criticism of the ‘Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse’ which were running Republican
policies. He had the trust of the people, due to being a successful New York governor. The
Republicans were unable to build up under FDR as they were focusing on challenging his legislation
rather than building own agenda.
Failure of Republicanism: Republicans were clearly not the poor man’s party offering a ‘chicken in
every pot’ as Hoover had argued
Democrats Growing in Congress: 1930 Democrats won House and growing in Senate
New Deal Campaign: FDR campaigned with New Deal - ‘Happy Days are Here Again’ - Republicans
led by ‘Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse’ - had been governor of NY
FDR’s Presidency:
How was New Deal thinking different?
FDR was given emergency powers by congress to enact the New Deal – almost as though the US
were at war. FDR was able to increase government spending, after promising to balance the budget
he came to power and prioritised government aid over the deficit. This links to his use of welfare,
deeming it as necessary to help people get back on their feet. However, it was only the bare
minimum and the tests needed to qualify were demeaning so many chose not to, in this sense it
wasn’t entirely dissimilar to Hoover’s thinking towards the end of his presidency. The main area that
saw a lot of difference was federalism, with FDR prioritising rapid, national action and thus
enhancing the role of the federal government over the states. Things like the Tennessee Valley plan
needed inter-state coordination. Alphabet agencies like the National Recovery Administration (to
regulate businesses) and the Agricultural Adjustment Agency (to give help to farmers) were set up.
FDR’s Emergency Powers: FDR granted emergency powers by congress
FDR’s Spending: initially promised to balance budget – when in power prioritised government help
FDR’s Welfare: help people get back onto feet – bare minimum – tests to qualify were demeaning
and many chose not to – not entirely dissimilar to Hoover
, FDR’s National Action: Tennessee Valley plan needed inter-state coordination – Alphabet Agencies
set up – National Recovery Agency (regulate business) and Agricultural Adjustment Agency (help
farmers)
Changing the Presidency:
FDR served 4 terms. He was personally charming and persuasive, restoring faith in the presidency –
in his inauguration speech he said ‘the only thing we have to fear is fear itself’ acknowledging the
hardship of the depression but confident things could change. He was also pragmatic and willing to
work with people and was able to manipulate congress to get what he wanted. FDR increased the
power of the executive branch by increasing its staff and forming the EXOP. He also used executive
orders like EO 9066 which interned Japanese Americans in WW2. He was also good at managing
people, using ‘fireside chats’ to explain policy to the American people over the radio as though they
were chatting in his front room. As a result, he got sacksful of letters from ordinary people. He was
able to use the media well, holding ‘off the record’ press meetings twice a week at the White House
to get them on his side. However, he was not popular with everyone, especially businesses and the
Supreme Court. The SC deemed the AAA and NRA unconstitutional in 1937 and his court packing of
adding a new judge for every judge over 70 was abandoned due to unpopularity.
FDR’s Presidency: FDR served 4 terms
FDR’s Personality: charming and charismatic – restored faith - ‘only thing we have to fear is fear
itself’ - pragmatic and knew how to manipulate congress
FDR’s Executive Branch Powers: created EXOP – used EOs frequently – EO 9066 internment of
Japanese Americans
FDR’s Managing People: FDR used ‘fireside chats’ to explain policy – got sacksful of letters
FDR’s Media Management: ‘off the record’ press meetings twice a week at White House
FDR’s Unpopularity: unpopular with businesses and SC – SC deemed NRA and AAA unconstitutional
in 1937 – tried packing the SC but adding one for every over 70 but had to abandon
Long Term Impact:
FDR did leave behind a legacy of a powerful white house, a president who was expected to work well
with the media and give help to the people (shown by Truman’s ‘Fair Deal’ and JFK’s ‘New Frontier).
However, state rights were eventually upheld by the Supreme Court.
FDR assured people that the USA would stay neutral in a ‘fireside chat’ but argued that he did not
expect every American to remain neutral – immediately challenging the Neutrality Acts not allowing
American citizens to fight abroad. However, he did gear up production to help the Allies, producing
$47 billion in one year on a ‘cash and carry basis’ as the Neutrality Acts banned credit. FDR was able
to work his way around credit with the 1941 Land Lease Act and a ‘destroyers for bases’ deal. This
boosted industry and farming, and increased employment. Eventually congress declared war in
December 1941 after the bombing of Pearl Harbour. This made industry profits grow even further,
from $17 million in 1940 to $28 million in 1943
FDR’s Initial Take on WW2: in ‘fireside chat’ - USA would remain neutral – didn't expect all
Americans to stay neutral (could go and fight against Neutrality Act)
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