Summary Introduction to Psychology, literature (foundations and frontiers psychology) + lectures (own grade 8)
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Course
Inleiding in de psychologie (6471PSYC)
Institution
Universiteit Leiden (UL)
Book
Psychology
This document contains the summary of the entire book. This also includes the summary of the lectures. These can be read weekly. All terms are underlined so that it is easy and quick to learn.
Samenvatting Inleiding in de Psychologie (6461PS002) 2021-2022
Samenvatting Inleiding In De Psychologie, Psychology, ISBN: 9781305114302
Psychology van Bernstein samengevat voor deeltentamen I en II!
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Psychologie: wetenschap dat zich bezighoudt met menselijk gedrag/ mentale processen.
Ontwikkelingspsychologie: bestudeert hoe en waarom gedrag en mentale processen veranderen
gedurende de levenscyclus van een mens, en wat de gevolgen daarvan zijn.
Onderwijspsychologie: bestudeert hoe mensen leren en hoe onderwijs het beste vormgegeven kan
worden.
Cognitieve psychologie: bestudeert mentale processen zoals perceptie, geheugen, leren, denken,
bewustzijn, intelligentie ect.
Klinische (and counseling) psychologie: bestudeert de oorzaken, gevolgen en behandelingen van
psychische stoornissen.
Gezondheidspsychologie: bestudeert hoe gedrag en mentale processen de lichamelijke gezondheid kunnen
beïnvloeden, en andersom.
Persoonlijkheidspsychologie: bestudeert de stabiele karaktereigenschappen van personen en hoe die
samenhangen met bv psychische problemen. (Temperament)
Sociale psychologie: bestudeert hoe mensen elkaars gedrag en mentale processen beïnvloeden, individueel
en in groepen.
Bio- en neuropsychologie: bestudeert hoe het brein en processen in ons lichaam ons gedrag en mentale
processen beïnvloeden, en andersom.
Organisatiepsychologie: bestudeert hoe de efficiëntie, productiviteit en tevredenheid van werknemers en
werkgevers vergoot kan worden.
Developmental Psychology: describe how behavior and mental processes change from birth through old
age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes
Community psychology: work to obtain psychological services for people in need of help and to prevent
psychological disorders by working for changes in social systems.
Quantitative psychology: develop and use statistical tools to analyze research data.
Sports psychology: explore the relationships between athletic performance and such psychological
variables as motivation and emotion
Forensic psychology: assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants' mental competence to stand trial, and
deal with other issues involving psychology and the law.
Environmental psychology: study the effects of the physical environment on behavior and mental
processes.
Literatuur 1 (hoofdstuk 1, introducing psychology)
❖ Psychology relies on the results of scientific research.
❖ Empiricism challenged the claim that we are born with knowledge about the world -> we get them
form experience and observation instead.
o The philosophical views known as empiricism was very important to the development of
scientific psychology.
❖ The official birth date of modern psychology is said to be 1879 -> the year that Wilhelm Wundt
established the first formal psychology research.
❖ Consciousness: the awareness of external stimuli and our own mental activity
❖ Functionalism: focused on the role of consciousness in guiding peoples ability to make decisions
❖ Watsons view (behaviorism) recognized that consciousness exists, but it did not consider it worth
studying because it would always be private and therefore not observable by scientific methods.
❖ Culture: accumulation of values, rules of behavior, forms of expressions, religious beliefs,
occupational choices and the like for a group who share a common language and environment.
❖ Sociocultural factors: gender, ethnicity, social class, culture, age, religion.
Approaches
• Biological approach: behavior (disorder) is seen as the result of physical processes, especially those
related to the brain and to hormones and chemicals.
, • Psychodynamic approach: assumes that our behavior and mental processes reflect constant a
mostly unconscious psychological struggles deep within us (the interplay of unconsciousness
mental processes in determining human thought, feelings and behavior according to Freud)
• Behavioral approach: emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has
learned, especially from rewards and punishments.
• Evolutionary approach: assumes that the behavior and mental processes of humans/animals are
alse affected by evolution through natural selection. (emphasizes the inherited, adaptive aspects of
behavior and mental processes)
o Natural selection: the evolutionary mechanism through which Darwin said the fittest
individuals survive to reproduce.
• Cognitive approach: emphasizes research in how the brain takes in information, forms and retrieves
memories, processen information, and generates integrated patterns of actions.
• Humanistic approach: focuses on how each person has a unique capacity to choose how to think
and act.
Early advocates
• Edward Titchener (Wilhelm Wundt): structuralism -> studied the conscious experience and its
structure
• Max Wertheimer: gestalt psychology -> describes the organization of mental processes ´The whole
is different from the sum of its parts´
• Sigmund Freud: psychoanalysis -> explain personality and behavior, to develop techniques for
treating mental disorders
• William James: functionalism -> studied how the mind works in allowing an organism to adapt to
the environment
• John Watson and Skinner: behaviorism -> to study only observable behavior and explain behavior
through learning principles
Literatuur 2 (hoofdstuk 5, learning)
• Learning: permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience
o The modification of preexisting behavior and understanding
• Habituation: reduced responsiveness to a repeated stimulus (a sound or smell) (=Non associative)
• Sensation: increase in responsiveness to a stimulus (spooky house) (=Non associative)
• Escape conditioning: when we learn responses that stop an unpleasant stimulus. (mute tv)
• Avoidance conditioning: when we learn particular responses that avoid an unpleasant stimulus.
(apologize for bumping into someone when in a hurry)
• Discriminative conditioned stimuli: stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available of a
certain response is made (learn what is appropriate = reinforced -> no jokes at a wedding)
• Shaping: the reinforcement of responses that come successively closer to some desired response
(give a sugar before instead of after the paw)
• Primary reinforcers: stimuli that satisfy psychological needs basic to survival (food)
• Secondary reinforcers: rewards that people learn to like (a hug)
• Partial reinforcement effect: a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial
reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than those learned in a continuous
reinforcement schedule
• Positive reinforcement: presenting something pleasant
• Negative reinforcement: removing something unpleasant.
• Punishment: the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one following
behavior
• Positive punishment: increasing discomfort (smashing your dog)
• Negative punishment: reducing pleasure (take the TV away from your child)
, • Learned helplessness: a tendency to give up on efforts to control the environment
• Latent learning: learning that has obviously occurred in the animal even though it was not evident
when it first took place (learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs -> rats in a maze)
• Cognitive map: a mental representation of the environment
• Insight: a sudden understanding of what is required to solve a problem
• Observational learning: learning how to perform new behaviors by watching others
• Counterconditioning (systematic desensitization): conditioneren om niet meer bang voor iets te
zijn.
• Wat te leren van Watson en Pavlov: hoe we voorkeuren/angsten
ontstaan/maken/behandelen/voorkomen.
• Accidentally reinforcement: bijgeloof -> 1x handdoek aanraken voor de winst -> associatie
• Leren door classical conditioning, operant conditioning (reward or punishment) en imitatie.
• Deviancy training: elkaar trainen in bepaald gedrag -> vooral bij jongerengroepen (operant
conditioning)
• Leertheorie geeft verklaringen: Angst (respondent conditioning), Bijgeloof (operant conditioning),
Agressie (social)
Classical conditioning (response after reward -> Pavlov)
• Classical conditioning (acquisition): a procedure in which a neutral stimulus (meat) is paired with a
stimulus that triggers an automatic response (sound) until the neutral stimulus alone comes to
trigger a similar response (drool).
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that triggers a response without conditioning. (food)
• Unconditioned response (UCR): the automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. (drooling)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): an originally neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.
(sound)
• Conditioned response (CR): the response triggered by the conditioned stimulus. (drooling)
• Respondent extinction (flooding): the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response.
• Reconditioning: the relearning of a conditioned response following extinction
• Spontaneous recovery: the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.
• Stimulus generalization: a process in which a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to
the original conditioned stimulus.
• Stimulus discrimination: a process through which people learn to differentiate among similar
stimuli and respond appropriately to each one. (not afraid of all dogs to bite)
o Responses develop when one event signals the appearance of another.
▪ Timing, predictability, intensity, attention, bio preparedness, higher order
conditioning
• Higher order conditioning: a process through which a conditioned stimulus comes to signal another
conditioned stimulus that is already associated with an unconditioned stimulus (white coat and
pain)
Operant conditioning (response before reward/punishment -> Skinner)
• Thorndike designed it, called the instrumental conditioning
o Law of effect: if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded, the
same response is more likely to occur when that stimulus is encountered again.
• Skinner called it operant conditioning -> Skinner Box designed.
• Operant conditioning: a process in which responses are learned on the basis of their rewarding or
punishing consequences
• Operant extinction: no positive reinforcement following the negative behavior to stop that
behavior.
o Gedrag neemt in frequentie af door operant extinction
• Operant: a response that has some effect on the world (going for a walk)
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